How Kashmir Shaped an Early Model of Cultural Globalisation

In this piece academic Moin Aftab reflects on cultural globalisation and hybridisation in his birthplace, Kashmir. Moin, who’s research interests include Kashmir, Syria and the DAANES, explores how Kashmir’s art, religious traditions and architecture have been shaped by the region’s unique blend of influences.

“We live in times where cultural globalisation is viewed as a threat to local traditions and identity. But the history of ancient and medieval Kashmir tells a different story. It shows us that cultures are not like fragile vases that shatter upon foreign contact – instead, they grow and thrive through exchange.”

Moin Aftab

When we talk about globalisation, we often view it through an economic lens, with both the “Davos Culture” of international business networks or the “media imperialism” of Hollywood coming to mind, where western narratives overshadow local story telling. However, if we look at the functionalist history of Kashmir, we find a different and maybe a more organic model of cultural globalisation—one shaped less by economics and more by longstanding patterns of social, cultural, and regional interconnection.

At its core, cultural globalisation is the transmission of meaning and values across borders. It is a process that involves the diffusion of languages, art and beliefs. It is also a process that can lead to the erasure of the local culture, through the spread of a neighbouring or overseas culture, or its enrichment, through the spread of the local culture, and through homogenisation and diversification respectively. But Kashmir shows us an alternative: hybridisation.

Cultural Globalisation and Kashmir

Kashmir was never a secluded valley locked away by the Himalayas. Instead, it was (and still is) a place where the breeze of various different influences sweep across the region, shaping the social, religious, and artistic basis of its existence. It has is a place where the boundaries between the local and foreign have been renegotiated and remoulded. The region’s identity has been birthed from a rich synthesis of West Asian, Indian, and Central Asian cultures. From this blend a culture that is uniquely Kashmiri was born.

A Fire that Never Went Out

Long before the arrival of Islam in the valley in the Fourteenth Century, the inhabitants were already influenced by the fire cults of ancient Iran. Originating in Balkh (modern Afghanistan) in the sixth century BC, Zoroastrian practices settled into and embedded themselves into Kashmiri life. But these influences didn’t replace the local traditions. Instead, local Kashmiri Hindu Pandits absorbed these rituals into their own traditions. For example, they performed circumambulations (the act of walking around a sacred object or idol) around the fire for the Hindu ritual, yajna, which was likely shaped by Parsi (Zoroastrian) customs. 

Even when Islam arrived in Kashmir, it did not come directly from Arabia. Instead, it reached the valley by passing through the cultural filters of Persia and Central Asia – carrying with it a distinctly Ajam (Non-Arab) flavour. One example of this is the festival called Frov, celebrated annually at the Aishmuqam at the Shrine of Zain-uddin Reshi. The festival directly echoes ancient Iranian traditions. Today, devotees still light fire torches at the shrine. The ritual is distinctly Kashmiri, not falling into a binary understanding of Hindu or Muslim, Indian or Persian.

Similarly, the ritual of Ruhan Posh, where flower petals are showered on graves and food is distributed to passersby- mirrors Farvardingan, an ancient Iranian tradition. The Zoroastrians visited graves during the month of Farvardin and offered flowers and incense to the souls of their ancestors, Kashmiris transformed it into a local act of remembrance. These are not just cultural rites, they are living reminders of Kashmir’s historical ties to these traditions.

How Faiths Merged

Historical records such as the Chahnama, a medieval chronicle detailing the Arab conquest of Sindh, suggest that Muslims, particularly a fugitive Arab chief named Mohammad Alafi and his followers, were given refuge in Kashmir as early as the eight century CE. However, the widespread adoption of the Islamic faith in the region came much later, and with it unfolded in a unique blended culture. 

As the missionaries who brought Islam to Kashmir were largely from Persia and Central Asia, they understood the values of local prevalent cultures rooted in the valley. They did not demand an immediate break from the past. Instead, early converts continued to not only wear traditional clothes, but to visit temples, and even perform yajna.

Sayyid Ali Hamadani, a missionary from Iran, introduced group dhikr (collective chanting) to the valley. This served as a familiar sonic parallel to the recitation of Mantras in the temples making the new practices feel culturally recognisable. The Sufi Rishi order took this further by adopting local traditions like vegetarianism, celibacy, and non-violence into their spiritual discipline.

This was the essence of cultural globalisation in the region during that time: the ability of the society to adopt the “other” and make it “self”. It was not about the erasure of traditions and practises, but about expansion and depth.

Cultural Hybridisation in Architecture

Kashmiri architecture has always been influenced by its geography. Its architecture is heavily reliant on timber which was abundant in the region. While the timber was local, the forms it took tell a story of influence from outside the region. 

Even as early as the second century CE, Parthian artistic influence was visible in Kashmir. The ruins of the cities of Huvishkapura and Harwan revealed statues and motifs carved in Parthian style. For example, they feature figures dressed in distinctly Iranian clothing. These findings suggest that after the fall of empires in the West, the artisans migrated east and sought refuge in Kashmir, bringing their craft traditions and skills with them. 

However, the most striking examples of cultural hybridisation can be seen during the rule of Muslim Sultans, particularly the Shahmiri dynasty (1339-1561). When we look at a traditional Kashmiri Mosque or Khanqah, we do not see the typical Arab or Persian styled domes. Instead, these buildings have multi-tiered, pyramidal roofs and wooden spires – a style that evolved from the indigenous temple architecture and adapted to be made from timber.

When the Kashmiri State encouraged the migration of skill and culture, during a period of relative peace and patronage, this unique architectural style reached its peak.

Under rulers like Sultan Zainul Abidin (1420-1470 CE) artisans from Iraq, Turkestan and Iran were invited to Kashmir not just to build, but to also teach. With them new crafts such as carpet weaving, paper mache, and glazed tiling were also introduced, all of which have become symbols of Kashmiri art.

Cultural hybridisation means that Kashmiri architecture remains unique. A person standing before Khanqah-e-Moula today looks at a mosque which is neither purely Persian nor purely Indian. It is an architectural sign of a society that refused to choose between the traditional and more modern influences, and from that a strong and distinct identity has been born.

Why Does this Matter Today?

We currently live in times where cultural globalisation is viewed as a threat to local traditions and identity. But the history of ancient and medieval Kashmir tells a different story. It shows us that cultures are not like fragile vases that shatter upon foreign contact, instead, they grow and thrive through exchange.

The Kashmir that the world knows today did not emerge out of isolation – it was built on foundations laid by Buddhist monks, Zoroastrians, Kashmiri Hindu Pandits and Muslims who crossed the Himalayan passes to find a home in this valley.

Kashmir’s past reminds us that we have always been global. Our culture and identities are developed by our connections to the wider world. A country’s artistry, traditions and values do not thrive by building walls; they are enriched by knowing how to be open on our own terms.